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Encryption

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about algorithms for encryption and decryption. For an overview of cryptographic technology in general, see <a href="Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a>. For the music album, see <a href="Encryption_(album)" class="mw-redirect" title="Encryption (album)">Encryption (album)</a>. "Encrypt" redirects here; not to be confused with <a href="Encrypt_(film)" title="Encrypt (film)">Encrypt (film)</a>.</div>

In <a href="Cryptography_law" title="Cryptography law">cryptography</a>, encryption (more specifically, <a href="Code" title="Code">encoding</a>) is the process of transforming information in a way that, ideally, only authorized parties can decode. This process converts the original representation of the information, known as <a href="Plaintext" title="Plaintext">plaintext</a>, into an alternative form known as <a href="Ciphertext" title="Ciphertext">ciphertext</a>. Despite its goal, encryption does not itself prevent interference but denies the intelligible content to a would-be interceptor.

For technical reasons, an encryption scheme usually uses a <a href="Pseudo-random" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo-random">pseudo-random</a> encryption <a href="Key_(cryptography)" title="Key (cryptography)">key</a> generated by an <a href="Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a>. It is possible to decrypt the message without possessing the key but, for a well-designed encryption scheme, considerable computational resources and skills are required. An authorized recipient can easily decrypt the message with the key provided by the originator to recipients but not to unauthorized users.

Historically, various forms of encryption have been used to aid in cryptography. Early encryption techniques were often used in military messaging. Since then, new techniques have emerged and become commonplace in all areas of modern computing.<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a> Modern encryption schemes use the concepts of <a href="Public-key_cryptography" title="Public-key cryptography">public-key</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-2">[2]</a> and <a href="Symmetric-key_algorithm" title="Symmetric-key algorithm">symmetric-key</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a> Modern encryption techniques ensure security because modern computers are inefficient at cracking the encryption.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient">Ancient</h3></div>

One of the earliest forms of encryption is symbol replacement, which was first found in the tomb of <a href="Khnumhotep_II" title="Khnumhotep II">Khnumhotep II</a>, who lived in 1900 BC Egypt. Symbol replacement encryption is “non-standard,” which means that the symbols require a cipher or key to understand. This type of early encryption was used throughout Ancient Greece and Rome for military purposes.<a href="#cite_note-:4-3">[3]</a> One of the most famous military encryption developments was the <a href="Caesar_cipher" title="Caesar cipher">Caesar cipher</a>, in which a plaintext letter is shifted a fixed number of positions along the alphabet to get the encoded letter. A message encoded with this type of encryption could be decoded with a fixed number on the Caesar cipher.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a>

Around 800 AD, Arab mathematician <a href="Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">al-Kindi</a> developed the technique of <a href="Frequency_analysis" title="Frequency analysis">frequency analysis</a> – which was an attempt to crack ciphers systematically, including the Caesar cipher.<a href="#cite_note-:4-3">[3]</a> This technique looked at the frequency of letters in the encrypted message to determine the appropriate shift: for example, the most common letter in English text is E and is therefore likely to be represented by the letter that appears most commonly in the ciphertext. This technique was rendered ineffective by the <a href="Polyalphabetic_cipher" title="Polyalphabetic cipher">polyalphabetic cipher</a>, described by <a href="Al-Qalqashandi" title="Al-Qalqashandi">al-Qalqashandi</a> (1355–1418)<a href="#cite_note-:5-2">[2]</a> and <a href="Leon_Battista_Alberti" title="Leon Battista Alberti">Leon Battista Alberti</a> (in 1465), which varied the substitution alphabet as encryption proceeded in order to confound such analysis.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th–20th_century">19th–20th century</h3></div>

Around 1790, <a href="Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> theorized a cipher to encode and decode messages to provide a more secure way of military correspondence. The cipher, known today as the Wheel Cipher or the <a href="Jefferson_disk" title="Jefferson disk">Jefferson Disk</a>, although never actually built, was theorized as a spool that could jumble an English message up to 36 characters. The message could be decrypted by plugging in the jumbled message to a receiver with an identical cipher.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a>

A similar device to the Jefferson Disk, the <a href="M-94" title="M-94">M-94</a>, was developed in 1917 independently by US Army Major Joseph Mauborne. This device was used in U.S. military communications until 1942.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>

In World War II, the Axis powers used a more advanced version of the M-94 called the <a href="Enigma_machine" title="Enigma machine">Enigma Machine</a>. The Enigma Machine was more complex because unlike the Jefferson Wheel and the M-94, each day the jumble of letters switched to a completely new combination. Each day's combination was only known by the Axis, so many thought the only way to break the code would be to try over 17,000 combinations within 24 hours.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The Allies used computing power to severely limit the number of reasonable combinations they needed to check every day, leading to the breaking of the Enigma Machine.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern">Modern</h3></div>

Today, encryption is used in the transfer of communication over the <a href="Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> for security and commerce.<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a> As computing power continues to increase, computer encryption is constantly evolving to prevent <a href="Eavesdropping" title="Eavesdropping">eavesdropping</a> attacks.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> One of the first "modern" cipher suites, <a href="Data_Encryption_Standard" title="Data Encryption Standard">DES</a>, used a 56-bit key with 72,057,594,037,927,936 possibilities; it was cracked in 1999 by <a href="Electronic_Frontier_Foundation" title="Electronic Frontier Foundation">EFF's</a> brute-force <a href="EFF_DES_cracker" title="EFF DES cracker">DES cracker</a>, which required 22 hours and 15 minutes to do so. Modern encryption standards often use stronger key sizes, such as <a href="Advanced_Encryption_Standard" title="Advanced Encryption Standard">AES</a> (256-bit mode), <a href="Twofish" title="Twofish">TwoFish</a>, <a href="ChaCha20-Poly1305" title="ChaCha20-Poly1305">ChaCha20-Poly1305</a>, <a href="Serpent_(cipher)" title="Serpent (cipher)">Serpent</a> (configurable up to 512-bit). Cipher suites that use a 128-bit or higher key, like AES, will not be able to be brute-forced because the total amount of keys is 3.4028237e+38 possibilities. The most likely option for cracking ciphers with high key size is to find vulnerabilities in the cipher itself, like inherent biases and <a href="Backdoor_(computing)" title="Backdoor (computing)">backdoors</a> or by exploiting physical side effects through <a href="Side-channel_attack" title="Side-channel attack">Side-channel attacks</a>. For example, <a href="RC4" title="RC4">RC4</a>, a stream cipher, was cracked due to inherent biases and vulnerabilities in the cipher.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Encryption_in_cryptography">Encryption in cryptography</h2></div>

In the context of cryptography, encryption serves as a mechanism to ensure <a href="Information_security" title="Information security">confidentiality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a> Since data may be visible on the Internet, sensitive information such as <a href="Password" title="Password">passwords</a> and personal communication may be exposed to potential <a href="Eavesdropping" title="Eavesdropping">interceptors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a> The process of encrypting and decrypting messages involves <a href="Key_(cryptography)" title="Key (cryptography)">keys</a>. The two main types of keys in cryptographic systems are symmetric-key and public-key (also known as asymmetric-key).<a href="#cite_note-:0-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-10">[10]</a>

Many complex cryptographic algorithms often use simple <a href="Modular_arithmetic" title="Modular arithmetic">modular arithmetic</a> in their implementations.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types">Types</h3></div>

In <a href="Symmetric-key_algorithm" title="Symmetric-key algorithm">symmetric-key</a> schemes,<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> the encryption and decryption keys are the same. Communicating parties must have the same key in order to achieve secure communication. The German Enigma Machine used a new symmetric-key each day for encoding and decoding messages.

In <a href="Public-key_cryptography" title="Public-key cryptography">public-key cryptography</a> schemes, the encryption key is published for anyone to use and encrypt messages. However, only the receiving party has access to the decryption key that enables messages to be read.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Public-key encryption was first described in a secret document in 1973;<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> beforehand, all encryption schemes were symmetric-key (also called private-key).<a href="#cite_note-Goldreich-15">[15]</a>: 478 Although published subsequently, the work of Diffie and Hellman was published in a journal with a large readership, and the value of the methodology was explicitly described.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The method became known as the <a href="Diffie%E2%80%93Hellman_key_exchange" title="Diffie–Hellman key exchange">Diffie-Hellman key exchange</a>.

<a href="RSA_(cryptosystem)" class="mw-redirect" title="RSA (cryptosystem)">RSA (Rivest–Shamir–Adleman)</a> is another notable public-key <a href="Cryptosystem" title="Cryptosystem">cryptosystem</a>. Created in 1978, it is still used today for applications involving <a href="Digital_signature" title="Digital signature">digital signatures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Using <a href="Number_theory" title="Number theory">number theory</a>, the RSA algorithm selects two <a href="Prime_number" title="Prime number">prime numbers</a>, which help generate both the encryption and decryption keys.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a>

A publicly available public-key encryption application called <a href="Pretty_Good_Privacy" title="Pretty Good Privacy">Pretty Good Privacy</a> (PGP) was written in 1991 by <a href="Phil_Zimmermann" title="Phil Zimmermann">Phil Zimmermann</a>, and distributed free of charge with source code. PGP was purchased by <a href="NortonLifeLock" class="mw-redirect" title="NortonLifeLock">Symantec</a> in 2010 and is regularly updated.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a>

Encryption has long been used by <a href="Military" title="Military">militaries</a> and <a href="Government" title="Government">governments</a> to facilitate secret communication. It is now commonly used in protecting information within many kinds of civilian systems. For example, the <a href="Computer_Security_Institute" title="Computer Security Institute">Computer Security Institute</a> reported that in 2007, 71% of companies surveyed used encryption for some of their data in transit, and 53% used encryption for some of their data in storage.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Encryption can be used to protect data "at rest", such as information stored on computers and storage devices (e.g. <a href="USB_flash_drives" class="mw-redirect" title="USB flash drives">USB flash drives</a>). In recent years, there have been numerous reports of confidential data, such as customers' personal records, being exposed through loss or theft of laptops or backup drives; encrypting such files at rest helps protect them if physical security measures fail.<a href="#cite_note-KeaneWhyStolen16-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-CastriconeFebruary18-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-BekProtect16-23">[23]</a> <a href="Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">Digital rights management</a> systems, which prevent unauthorized use or reproduction of copyrighted material and protect software against <a href="Reverse_engineering" title="Reverse engineering">reverse engineering</a> (see also <a href="Copy_protection" title="Copy protection">copy protection</a>), is another somewhat different example of using encryption on data at rest.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a>

Encryption is also used to protect data in transit, for example data being transferred via <a href="Computer_network" title="Computer network">networks</a> (e.g. the Internet, <a href="E-commerce" title="E-commerce">e-commerce</a>), <a href="Mobile_telephone" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobile telephone">mobile telephones</a>, <a href="Wireless_microphone" title="Wireless microphone">wireless microphones</a>, <a href="Wireless_intercom" title="Wireless intercom">wireless intercom</a> systems, <a href="Bluetooth" title="Bluetooth">Bluetooth</a> devices and bank <a href="Automatic_teller_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Automatic teller machine">automatic teller machines</a>. There have been numerous reports of data in transit being intercepted in recent years.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Data should also be encrypted when transmitted across networks in order to protect against <a href="Eavesdropping" title="Eavesdropping">eavesdropping</a> of network traffic by unauthorized users.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data_erasure">Data erasure</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Data_erasure" title="Data erasure">Data erasure</a></div>

Conventional methods for permanently deleting data from a storage device involve overwriting the device's whole content with zeros, ones, or other patterns – a process which can take a significant amount of time, depending on the capacity and the type of storage medium. Cryptography offers a way of making the erasure almost instantaneous. This method is called <a href="Crypto-shredding" title="Crypto-shredding">crypto-shredding</a>. An example implementation of this method can be found on <a href="IOS" title="IOS">iOS</a> devices, where the cryptographic key is kept in a dedicated '<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/efface" class="extiw external" title="wikt:efface">effaceable</a> storage'.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Because the key is stored on the same device, this setup on its own does not offer full privacy or security protection if an unauthorized person gains physical access to the device.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Limitations">Limitations</h2></div>

Encryption is used in the 21st century to protect digital data and information systems. As computing power increased over the years, encryption technology has only become more advanced and secure. However, this advancement in technology has also exposed a potential limitation of today's encryption methods.

The length of the encryption key is an indicator of the strength of the encryption method.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> For example, the original encryption key, <a href="Data_Encryption_Standard" title="Data Encryption Standard">DES</a> (Data Encryption Standard), was 56 bits, meaning it had 2^56 combination possibilities. With today's computing power, a 56-bit key is no longer secure, being vulnerable to <a href="Brute-force_attack" title="Brute-force attack">brute force attacks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a>

<a href="Quantum_computing" title="Quantum computing">Quantum computing</a> uses properties of <a href="Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> in order to process large amounts of data simultaneously. Quantum computing has been found to achieve computing speeds thousands of times faster than today's supercomputers.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> This computing power presents a challenge to today's encryption technology. For example, RSA encryption uses the multiplication of very large prime numbers to create a <a href="Semiprime_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiprime number">semiprime number</a> for its public key. Decoding this key without its private key requires this semiprime number to be factored, which can take a very long time to do with modern computers. It would take a supercomputer anywhere between weeks to months to factor in this key. However, quantum computing can use <a href="Quantum_algorithm" title="Quantum algorithm">quantum algorithms</a> to factor this semiprime number in the same amount of time it takes for normal computers to generate it. This would make all data protected by current public-key encryption vulnerable to quantum computing attacks.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Other encryption techniques like <a href="Elliptic-curve_cryptography" title="Elliptic-curve cryptography">elliptic curve cryptography</a> and symmetric key encryption are also vulnerable to quantum computing.

While quantum computing could be a threat to encryption security in the future, quantum computing as it currently stands is still very limited. Quantum computing currently is not commercially available, cannot handle large amounts of code, and only exists as computational devices, not computers.<a href="#cite_note-:3-32">[32]</a> Furthermore, quantum computing advancements will be able to be used in favor of encryption as well. The <a href="National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a> (NSA) is currently preparing post-quantum encryption standards for the future.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Quantum encryption promises a level of security that will be able to counter the threat of quantum computing.<a href="#cite_note-:3-32">[32]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Attacks_and_countermeasures">Attacks and countermeasures</h2></div>

Encryption is an important tool but is not sufficient alone to ensure the <a href="Information_security" title="Information security">security</a> or <a href="Information_privacy" title="Information privacy">privacy</a> of sensitive information throughout its lifetime. Most applications of encryption protect information only at rest or in transit, leaving sensitive data in clear text and potentially vulnerable to improper disclosure during processing, such as by a <a href="Cloud_computing" title="Cloud computing">cloud</a> service for example. <a href="Homomorphic_encryption" title="Homomorphic encryption">Homomorphic encryption</a> and <a href="Secure_multi-party_computation" title="Secure multi-party computation">secure multi-party computation</a> are emerging techniques to compute encrypted data; these techniques are general and <a href="Turing_completeness" title="Turing completeness">Turing complete</a> but incur high computational and/or communication costs.

In response to encryption of data at rest, cyber-adversaries have developed new types of attacks. These more recent threats to encryption of data at rest include cryptographic attacks,<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <a href="Ciphertext_stealing" title="Ciphertext stealing">stolen ciphertext attacks</a>,<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> attacks on encryption keys,<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <a href="Insider_threat" title="Insider threat">insider attacks</a>, data corruption or integrity attacks,<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> data destruction attacks, and <a href="Ransomware" title="Ransomware">ransomware</a> attacks. Data fragmentation<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> and <a href="Active_Defense" class="mw-redirect" title="Active Defense">active defense</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> data protection technologies attempt to counter some of these attacks, by distributing, moving, or mutating ciphertext so it is more difficult to identify, steal, corrupt, or destroy.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_debate_around_encryption">The debate around encryption</h2></div>

The question of balancing the need for national security with the right to privacy has been debated for years, since encryption has become critical in today's digital society. The modern encryption debate<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> started around the '90s when US government tried to ban cryptography because, according to them, it would threaten national security. The debate is polarized around two opposing views. Those who see strong encryption as a problem making it easier for criminals to hide their illegal acts online and others who argue that encryption keep digital communications safe. The debate heated up in 2014, when Big Tech like Apple and Google set encryption by default in their devices. This was the start of a series of controversies that puts governments, companies and internet users at stake.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Integrity_protection_of_Ciphertexts">Integrity protection of Ciphertexts</h3></div>

Encryption, by itself, can protect the confidentiality of messages, but other techniques are still needed to protect the integrity and authenticity of a message; for example, verification of a <a href="Message_authentication_code" title="Message authentication code">message authentication code</a> (MAC) or a <a href="Digital_signature" title="Digital signature">digital signature</a> usually done by a <a href="Hash_function" title="Hash function">hashing algorithm</a> or a <a href="Pretty_Good_Privacy" title="Pretty Good Privacy">PGP signature</a>. <a href="Authenticated_encryption" title="Authenticated encryption">Authenticated encryption</a> algorithms are designed to provide both encryption and integrity protection together. Standards for <a href="Cryptographic_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptographic software">cryptographic software</a> and <a href="Hardware_encryption" class="mw-redirect" title="Hardware encryption">hardware to perform encryption</a> are widely available, but successfully using encryption to ensure security may be a challenging problem. A single error in system design or execution can allow successful attacks. Sometimes an adversary can obtain unencrypted information without directly undoing the encryption. See for example <a href="Traffic_analysis" title="Traffic analysis">traffic analysis</a>, <a href="Tempest_(codename)" title="Tempest (codename)">TEMPEST</a>, or <a href="Trojan_horse_(computing)" title="Trojan horse (computing)">Trojan horse</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a>

Integrity protection mechanisms such as <a href="Message_authentication_code" title="Message authentication code">MACs</a> and <a href="Digital_signature" title="Digital signature">digital signatures</a> must be applied to the ciphertext when it is first created, typically on the same device used to compose the message, to protect a message <a href="End-to-end_principle" title="End-to-end principle">end-to-end</a> along its full transmission path; otherwise, any node between the sender and the encryption agent could potentially tamper with it. Encrypting at the time of creation is only secure if the encryption device itself has correct <a href="Key_(cryptography)" title="Key (cryptography)">keys</a> and has not been tampered with. If an endpoint device has been configured to trust a <a href="Root_certificate" title="Root certificate">root certificate</a> that an attacker controls, for example, then the attacker can both inspect and tamper with encrypted data by performing a <a href="Man-in-the-middle_attack" title="Man-in-the-middle attack">man-in-the-middle attack</a> anywhere along the message's path. The common practice of <a href="Transport_Layer_Security#TLS_interception" title="Transport Layer Security">TLS interception</a> by network operators represents a controlled and institutionally sanctioned form of such an attack, but countries have also attempted to employ such attacks as a form of control and censorship.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ciphertext_length_and_padding">Ciphertext length and padding</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Padding_(cryptography)" title="Padding (cryptography)">Padding (cryptography)</a></div>

Even when encryption correctly hides a message's content and it cannot be tampered with at rest or in transit, a message's length is a form of <a href="Metadata" title="Metadata">metadata</a> that can still leak sensitive information about the message. For example, the well-known <a href="CRIME" title="CRIME">CRIME</a> and <a href="BREACH" title="BREACH">BREACH</a> attacks against <a href="HTTPS" title="HTTPS">HTTPS</a> were <a href="Side-channel_attack" title="Side-channel attack">side-channel attacks</a> that relied on information leakage via the length of encrypted content.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <a href="Traffic_analysis" title="Traffic analysis">Traffic analysis</a> is a broad class of techniques that often employs message lengths to infer sensitive implementation about traffic flows by aggregating information about a large number of messages.

<a href="Padding_(cryptography)" title="Padding (cryptography)">Padding</a> a message's payload before encrypting it can help obscure the cleartext's true length, at the cost of increasing the ciphertext's size and introducing or increasing <a href="Overhead_(computing)" title="Overhead (computing)">bandwidth overhead</a>. Messages may be padded <a href="Padding_(cryptography)#Randomized_padding" title="Padding (cryptography)">randomly</a> or <a href="Padding_(cryptography)#Deterministic_padding" title="Padding (cryptography)">deterministically</a>, with each approach having different tradeoffs. Encrypting and padding messages to form <a href="PURB_(cryptography)" title="PURB (cryptography)">padded uniform random blobs or PURBs</a> is a practice guaranteeing that the cipher text leaks no <a href="Metadata" title="Metadata">metadata</a> about its cleartext's content, and leaks asymptotically minimal <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle O(\log \log M)}">

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</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle O(\log \log M)}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./80479022584a0f9fd3500c3c4b60b1e4f73b23c5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:12.742ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle O(\log \log M)}" loading="lazy"> <a href="Entropy_(information_theory)" title="Entropy (information theory)">information</a> via its length.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a>

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<ul><li><a href="Cryptosystem" title="Cryptosystem">Cryptosystem</a></li>

<li><a href="Cold_boot_attack" title="Cold boot attack">Cold boot attack</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptographic_primitive" title="Cryptographic primitive">Cryptographic primitive</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptography_standards" title="Cryptography standards">Cryptography standards</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyberspace_Electronic_Security_Act" title="Cyberspace Electronic Security Act">Cyberspace Electronic Security Act</a> (US)</li>

<li><a href="Dictionary_attack" title="Dictionary attack">Dictionary attack</a></li>

<li><a href="Disk_encryption" title="Disk encryption">Disk encryption</a></li>

<li><a href="Encrypted_function" title="Encrypted function">Encrypted function</a></li>

<li><a href="Enigma_machine" title="Enigma machine">Enigma machine</a></li>

<li><a href="Export_of_cryptography" title="Export of cryptography">Export of cryptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Geo-blocking" title="Geo-blocking">Geo-blocking</a></li>

<li><a href="Indistinguishability_obfuscation" title="Indistinguishability obfuscation">Indistinguishability obfuscation</a></li>

<li><a href="Key_management" title="Key management">Key management</a></li>

<li><a href="Multiple_encryption" title="Multiple encryption">Multiple encryption</a></li>

<li><a href="Information-theoretic_security#Physical_layer_encryption" title="Information-theoretic security">Physical Layer Encryption</a></li>

<li><a href="Pretty_Good_Privacy" title="Pretty Good Privacy">Pretty Good Privacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-quantum_cryptography" title="Post-quantum cryptography">Post-quantum cryptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Rainbow_table" title="Rainbow table">Rainbow table</a></li>

<li><a href="Rotor_machine" title="Rotor machine">Rotor machine</a></li>

<li><a href="Side-channel_attack" title="Side-channel attack">Side-channel attack</a></li>

<li><a href="Substitution_cipher" title="Substitution cipher">Substitution cipher</a></li>

<li><a href="Television_encryption" title="Television encryption">Television encryption</a></li>

<li><a href="Tokenization_(data_security)" title="Tokenization (data security)">Tokenization (data security)</a></li></ul>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Robert Richardson, 2008 CSI Computer Crime and Security Survey at 19.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://i.cmpnet.com/v2.gocsi.com/pdf/CSIsurvey2008.pdf">i.cmpnet.com</a>

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<li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAboodGuirguis2018" class="citation journal cs1">Abood, Omar G.; Guirguis, Shawkat K. (24 July 2018). "A Survey on Cryptography Algorithms". International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications. 8 (7). <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.29322%2FIJSRP.8.7.2018.p7978">10.29322/IJSRP.8.7.2018.p7978</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-computers-vastly-outperform-supercomputers-when-it-comes-to-energy-efficiency/">"Quantum computers vastly outperform supercomputers when it comes to energy efficiency"</a>. Physics World. 2020-05-01. Retrieved 2021-05-02.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSharmaChoudharyBhatiaMalik2021" class="citation journal cs1">Sharma, Moolchand; Choudhary, Vikas; Bhatia, R. S.; Malik, Sahil; Raina, Anshuman; Khandelwal, Harshit (3 April 2021). "Leveraging the power of quantum computing for breaking RSA encryption". Cyber-Physical Systems. 7 (2): 73–92. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F23335777.2020.1811384">10.1080/23335777.2020.1811384</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225312133">225312133</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-:3-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_32-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFSolenovBrielerScherrer2018" class="citation journal cs1">Solenov, Dmitry; Brieler, Jay; Scherrer, Jeffrey F. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6205278">"The Potential of Quantum Computing and Machine Learning to Advance Clinical Research and Change the Practice of Medicine"</a>. Missouri Medicine. 115 (5): 463–467. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6205278">6205278</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30385997">30385997</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210118015943/https://www.nsa.gov/what-we-do/cybersecurity/post-quantum-cybersecurity-resources/">"Post-Quantum Cybersecurity Resources"</a>. www.nsa.gov. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nsa.gov/what-we-do/cybersecurity/post-quantum-cybersecurity-resources/">the original</a> on 2021-01-18. Retrieved 2021-01-16.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFYan_LiNakul_Sanjay_DhotreYasuhiro_OharaThomas_M._Kroeger" class="citation web cs1">Yan Li; Nakul Sanjay Dhotre; Yasuhiro Ohara; Thomas M. Kroeger; Ethan L. Miller; Darrell D. E. Long. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ssrc.ucsc.edu/Papers/li-fast13.pdf">"Horus: Fine-Grained Encryption-Based Security for Large-Scale Storage"</a> (PDF). www.ssrc.ucsc.edu. Discussion of encryption weaknesses for petabyte scale datasets.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://robertheaton.com/2013/07/29/padding-oracle-attack/">"The Padding Oracle Attack – why crypto is terrifying"</a>. Robert Heaton. Retrieved 2016-12-25.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/security/2016/08/researchers-crack-open-unusually-advanced-malware-that-hid-for-5-years/">"Researchers crack open unusually advanced malware that hid for 5 years"</a>. Ars Technica. Retrieved 2016-12-25.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/security/2016/08/new-attack-steals-private-crypto-keys-by-corrupting-data-in-computer-memory/">"New cloud attack takes full control of virtual machines with little effort"</a>. Ars Technica. Retrieved 2016-12-25.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Examples of data fragmentation technologies include <a href="Tahoe-LAFS" title="Tahoe-LAFS">Tahoe-LAFS</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://storj.io/index.html">Storj</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://csrc.nist.gov/glossary/term/moving_target_defense">"Moving Target Defense (MTD) – NIST CSRC Glossary"</a>. National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 2025-04-24.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cryptomove.com">CryptoMove</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210206131311/https://www.cryptomove.com/">Archived</a> 2021-02-06 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> is the first technology to continuously move, mutate, and re-encrypt ciphertext as a form of data protection.

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<li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCatania2022" class="citation web cs1">Catania, Simone (2022-11-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://circleid.com/posts/20221102-the-modern-encryption-debate-whats-at-stake">"The Modern Encryption Debate: What's at Stake?"</a>. CircleID.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://usa.kaspersky.com/internet-security-center/threats/trojans#.VV3oaWDTvfY">"What is a Trojan Virus – Malware Protection – Kaspersky Lab US"</a>. 3 October 2023.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKumar2019" class="citation news cs1">Kumar, Mohit (July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thehackernews.com/2019/07/kazakhstan-https-security-certificate.html">"Kazakhstan Begins Intercepting HTTPS Internet Traffic Of All Citizens Forcefully"</a>. The Hacker News.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFShefferHolzSaint-Andre2015" class="citation report cs1">Sheffer, Y.; Holz, R.; Saint-Andre, P. (February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7457">Summarizing Known Attacks on Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram TLS (DTLS)</a> (Report).</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFNikitinBarmanLueksUnderwood2019" class="citation journal cs1">Nikitin, Kirill; Barman, Ludovic; Lueks, Wouter; Underwood, Matthew; Hubaux, Jean-Pierre; Ford, Bryan (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://petsymposium.org/2019/files/papers/issue4/popets-2019-0056.pdf">"Reducing Metadata Leakage from Encrypted Files and Communication with PURBs"</a> (PDF). Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies (PoPETS). 2019 (4): 6–33. <a href="ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1806.03160">1806.03160</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2478%2Fpopets-2019-0056">10.2478/popets-2019-0056</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:47011059">47011059</a>.</cite>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite class="citation cs2"><a href="Helen_Fouch%C3%A9_Gaines" title="Helen Fouché Gaines">Fouché Gaines, Helen</a> (1939), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cryptanalysis00hele">Cryptanalysis: A Study of Ciphers and Their Solution</a>, New York: Dover Publications Inc, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0486200972</bdi></cite> <code class="cs1-code">{{citation}}</code>: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</li>

<li><a href="David_Kahn_(writer)" title="David Kahn (writer)">Kahn, David</a> (1967), The Codebreakers - The Story of Secret Writing (<a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-684-83130-9</bdi>)</li>

<li><a href="Bart_Preneel" title="Bart Preneel">Preneel, Bart</a> (2000), "Advances in Cryptology – EUROCRYPT 2000", Springer Berlin Heidelberg, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-540-67517-4</bdi></li>

<li><a href="Abraham_Sinkov" title="Abraham Sinkov">Sinkov, Abraham</a> (1966): Elementary Cryptanalysis: A Mathematical Approach, Mathematical Association of America. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-88385-622-0</bdi></li>

<li>Tenzer, Theo (2021): SUPER SECRETO – The Third Epoch of Cryptography: Multiple, exponential, quantum-secure and above all, simple and practical Encryption for Everyone, Norderstedt, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-755-76117-4</bdi>.</li>

<li><cite class="citation cs2">Lindell, Yehuda; Katz, Jonathan (2014), Introduction to modern cryptography, Hall/CRC, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1466570269</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation cs2">Ermoshina, Ksenia; Musiani, Francesca (2022), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220602103410/https://www.matteringpress.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Concealing-for-Freedom-ePDF.pdf">Concealing for Freedom: The Making of Encryption, Secure Messaging and Digital Liberties (Foreword by Laura DeNardis)(open access)</a> (PDF), Manchester, UK: matteringpress.org, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-912729-22-7</bdi>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.matteringpress.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Concealing-for-Freedom-ePDF.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2022-06-02</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li> The dictionary definition of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/encryption" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:encryption">encryption</a> at Wiktionary</li>

<li> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cryptographic_algorithms" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Cryptographic algorithms">Cryptographic algorithms</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox0" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Cryptography149" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_cryptography" title="History of cryptography">History of cryptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_cryptography" title="Outline of cryptography">Outline of cryptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_cipher" title="Classical cipher">Classical cipher</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptographic_protocol" title="Cryptographic protocol">Cryptographic protocol</a>

<ul><li><a href="Authentication_protocol" title="Authentication protocol">Authentication protocol</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cryptographic_primitive" title="Cryptographic primitive">Cryptographic primitive</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptanalysis" title="Cryptanalysis">Cryptanalysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptocurrency" title="Cryptocurrency">Cryptocurrency</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptosystem" title="Cryptosystem">Cryptosystem</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptographic_nonce" title="Cryptographic nonce">Cryptographic nonce</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptovirology" title="Cryptovirology">Cryptovirology</a></li>

<li><a href="Hash_function" title="Hash function">Hash function</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cryptographic_hash_function" title="Cryptographic hash function">Cryptographic hash function</a></li>

<li><a href="Key_derivation_function" title="Key derivation function">Key derivation function</a></li>

<li><a href="Secure_Hash_Algorithms" title="Secure Hash Algorithms">Secure Hash Algorithms</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Digital_signature" title="Digital signature">Digital signature</a></li>

<li><a href="Kleptography" title="Kleptography">Kleptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Key_(cryptography)" title="Key (cryptography)">Key (cryptography)</a></li>

<li><a href="Key_exchange" title="Key exchange">Key exchange</a></li>

<li><a href="Key_generator" title="Key generator">Key generator</a></li>

<li><a href="Key_schedule" title="Key schedule">Key schedule</a></li>

<li><a href="Key_stretching" title="Key stretching">Key stretching</a></li>

<li><a href="Keygen" title="Keygen">Keygen</a></li>

<li>Machines</li>

<li><a href="Cryptojacking_malware" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptojacking malware">Cryptojacking malware</a></li>

<li><a href="Ransomware" title="Ransomware">Ransomware</a></li>

<li><a href="Random_number_generation" title="Random number generation">Random number generation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generator" title="Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator">Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator</a> (CSPRNG)</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pseudorandom_noise" title="Pseudorandom noise">Pseudorandom noise</a> (PRN)</li>

<li><a href="Secure_channel" title="Secure channel">Secure channel</a></li>

<li><a href="Insecure_channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Insecure channel">Insecure channel</a></li>

<li><a href="Subliminal_channel" title="Subliminal channel">Subliminal channel</a></li>

<li><a href="Decryption" class="mw-redirect" title="Decryption">Decryption</a></li>

<li><a href="End-to-end_encryption" title="End-to-end encryption">End-to-end encryption</a></li>

<li><a href="Harvest_now%2C_decrypt_later" title="Harvest now, decrypt later">Harvest now, decrypt later</a></li>

<li><a href="Information-theoretic_security" title="Information-theoretic security">Information-theoretic security</a></li>

<li><a href="Plaintext" title="Plaintext">Plaintext</a></li>

<li><a href="Codetext" class="mw-redirect" title="Codetext">Codetext</a></li>

<li><a href="Ciphertext" title="Ciphertext">Ciphertext</a></li>

<li><a href="Shared_secret" title="Shared secret">Shared secret</a></li>

<li><a href="Trapdoor_function" title="Trapdoor function">Trapdoor function</a></li>

<li><a href="Trusted_timestamping" title="Trusted timestamping">Trusted timestamping</a></li>

<li><a href="Key-based_routing" title="Key-based routing">Key-based routing</a></li>

<li><a href="Onion_routing" title="Onion routing">Onion routing</a></li>

<li><a href="Garlic_routing" title="Garlic routing">Garlic routing</a></li>

<li><a href="Kademlia" title="Kademlia">Kademlia</a></li>

<li><a href="Mix_network" title="Mix network">Mix network</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mathematics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cryptographic_hash_function" title="Cryptographic hash function">Cryptographic hash function</a></li>

<li><a href="Block_cipher" title="Block cipher">Block cipher</a></li>

<li><a href="Stream_cipher" title="Stream cipher">Stream cipher</a></li>

<li><a href="Symmetric-key_algorithm" title="Symmetric-key algorithm">Symmetric-key algorithm</a></li>

<li><a href="Authenticated_encryption" title="Authenticated encryption">Authenticated encryption</a></li>

<li><a href="Public-key_cryptography" title="Public-key cryptography">Public-key cryptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_key_distribution" title="Quantum key distribution">Quantum key distribution</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_cryptography" title="Quantum cryptography">Quantum cryptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-quantum_cryptography" title="Post-quantum cryptography">Post-quantum cryptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Message_authentication_code" title="Message authentication code">Message authentication code</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generator" title="Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator">Random numbers</a></li>

<li><a href="Steganography" title="Steganography">Steganography</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Information_security92" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Information_security92" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Information_security" title="Information security">Information security</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Threat_(computer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Threat (computer)">Threats</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Adware" title="Adware">Adware</a></li>

<li><a href="Advanced_persistent_threat" title="Advanced persistent threat">Advanced persistent threat</a></li>

<li><a href="Arbitrary_code_execution" title="Arbitrary code execution">Arbitrary code execution</a></li>

<li><a href="Backdoor_(computing)" title="Backdoor (computing)">Backdoors</a></li>

<li>Bombs

<li><a href="Logic_bomb" title="Logic bomb">Logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Hardware_backdoor" title="Hardware backdoor">Hardware backdoors</a></li>

<li><a href="Code_injection" title="Code injection">Code injection</a></li>

<li><a href="Crimeware" title="Crimeware">Crimeware</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-site_scripting" title="Cross-site scripting">Cross-site scripting</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-site_leaks" title="Cross-site leaks">Cross-site leaks</a></li>

<li><a href="DOM_clobbering" title="DOM clobbering">DOM clobbering</a></li>

<li><a href="History_sniffing" title="History sniffing">History sniffing</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptojacking" title="Cryptojacking">Cryptojacking</a></li>

<li><a href="Botnet" title="Botnet">Botnets</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_breach" title="Data breach">Data breach</a></li>

<li><a href="Drive-by_download" title="Drive-by download">Drive-by download</a></li>

<li><a href="Browser_Helper_Object" title="Browser Helper Object">Browser Helper Objects</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_virus" title="Computer virus">Viruses</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_scraping" title="Data scraping">Data scraping</a></li>

<li><a href="Denial-of-service_attack" title="Denial-of-service attack">Denial-of-service attack</a></li>

<li><a href="Eavesdropping" title="Eavesdropping">Eavesdropping</a></li>

<li><a href="Email_fraud" title="Email fraud">Email fraud</a></li>

<li><a href="Email_spoofing" title="Email spoofing">Email spoofing</a></li>

<li><a href="Exploit_(computer_security)" title="Exploit (computer security)">Exploits</a></li>

<li><a href="Dialer#Fraudulent_dialer" title="Dialer">Fraudulent dialers</a></li>

<li><a href="Hacktivism" title="Hacktivism">Hacktivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Infostealer" title="Infostealer">Infostealer</a></li>

<li><a href="Insecure_direct_object_reference" title="Insecure direct object reference">Insecure direct object reference</a></li>

<li><a href="Keystroke_logging" title="Keystroke logging">Keystroke loggers</a></li>

<li><a href="Malware" title="Malware">Malware</a></li>

<li><a href="Payload_(computing)" title="Payload (computing)">Payload</a></li>

<li><a href="Phishing" title="Phishing">Phishing</a>

<ul><li><a href="Voice_phishing" title="Voice phishing">Voice</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Polymorphic_engine" title="Polymorphic engine">Polymorphic engine</a></li>

<li><a href="Privilege_escalation" title="Privilege escalation">Privilege escalation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ransomware" title="Ransomware">Ransomware</a></li>

<li><a href="Rootkit" title="Rootkit">Rootkits</a></li>

<li><a href="Scareware" title="Scareware">Scareware</a></li>

<li><a href="Shellcode" title="Shellcode">Shellcode</a></li>

<li><a href="Spamming" title="Spamming">Spamming</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_engineering_(security)" title="Social engineering (security)">Social engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Spyware" title="Spyware">Spyware</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_bug" title="Software bug">Software bugs</a></li>

<li><a href="Trojan_horse_(computing)" title="Trojan horse (computing)">Trojan horses</a></li>

<li><a href="Hardware_Trojan" title="Hardware Trojan">Hardware Trojans</a></li>

<li><a href="Remote_access_trojan" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote access trojan">Remote access trojans</a></li>

<li><a href="Vulnerability_(computer_security)" title="Vulnerability (computer security)">Vulnerability</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_shell" title="Web shell">Web shells</a></li>

<li><a href="Wiper_(malware)" title="Wiper (malware)">Wiper</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_worm" title="Computer worm">Worms</a></li>

<li><a href="SQL_injection" title="SQL injection">SQL injection</a></li>

<li><a href="Rogue_security_software" title="Rogue security software">Rogue security software</a></li>

<li><a href="Zombie_(computing)" title="Zombie (computing)">Zombie</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defenses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Application_security" title="Application security">Application security</a>

<ul><li><a href="Secure_coding" title="Secure coding">Secure coding</a></li>

<li>Secure by default</li>

<li><a href="Secure_by_design" title="Secure by design">Secure by design</a>

<ul><li><a href="Misuse_case" title="Misuse case">Misuse case</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Computer_access_control" title="Computer access control">Computer access control</a>

<ul><li><a href="Authentication" title="Authentication">Authentication</a>

<ul><li><a href="Multi-factor_authentication" title="Multi-factor authentication">Multi-factor authentication</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Authorization" title="Authorization">Authorization</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Computer_security_software" title="Computer security software">Computer security software</a>

<ul><li><a href="Antivirus_software" title="Antivirus software">Antivirus software</a></li>

<li><a href="Security-focused_operating_system" title="Security-focused operating system">Security-focused operating system</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Data-centric_security" title="Data-centric security">Data-centric security</a></li>

<li><a href="Obfuscation_(software)" title="Obfuscation (software)">Software obfuscation</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_masking" title="Data masking">Data masking</a></li>

<li><a href="Firewall_(computing)" title="Firewall (computing)">Firewall</a></li>

<li><a href="Intrusion_detection_system" title="Intrusion detection system">Intrusion detection system</a>

<ul><li><a href="Host-based_intrusion_detection_system" title="Host-based intrusion detection system">Host-based intrusion detection system</a> (HIDS)</li>

<li><a href="Anomaly_detection" title="Anomaly detection">Anomaly detection</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Information_security_management" title="Information security management">Information security management</a>

<ul><li><a href="Information_risk_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Information risk management">Information risk management</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_information_and_event_management" title="Security information and event management">Security information and event management</a> (SIEM)</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Runtime_application_self-protection" title="Runtime application self-protection">Runtime application self-protection</a></li>

<li><a href="Site_isolation" title="Site isolation">Site isolation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related security topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Computer_security" title="Computer security">Computer security</a></li>

<li><a href="Automotive_security" title="Automotive security">Automotive security</a></li>

<li><a href="Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime">Cybercrime</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cybersex_trafficking" title="Cybersex trafficking">Cybersex trafficking</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_fraud" title="Computer fraud">Computer fraud</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cybergeddon" title="Cybergeddon">Cybergeddon</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyberterrorism" title="Cyberterrorism">Cyberterrorism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_warfare" title="Electronic warfare">Electronic warfare</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">Information warfare</a></li>

<li><a href="Internet_security" title="Internet security">Internet security</a></li>

<li><a href="Mobile_security" title="Mobile security">Mobile security</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_security" title="Network security">Network security</a></li>

<li><a href="Copy_protection" title="Copy protection">Copy protection</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">Digital rights management</a></li></ul>

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